Advertisements Exploiting Children

Are current practises of advertising to children exploitative? What restrictions should be placed on advertising to children? Up until recently, parents had been the intended target audience for advertising efforts aimed for children of young age groups. However it is now the children who have become the main focus.The growth in advertising channels reaching children and the privatisation of children’s media use have resulted in a dramatic increase in advertising directly intended for the eyes and ears of children (Wilcox et al. 2004). It is estimated that advertisers spend more than $12 billion a year on the youth market with more than 40,000 commercials each year. The current practises of advertising to young children definitely exploit their lack of understanding and comprehension of the aim of advertising and promotion of products.In the early 1970’s, The Federal Communications Commission originally set out to ban all advertising that was aimed at young children, ho wever ended up settling for a more lenient proposal of limiting the amount of time advertisements were aired within children’s programs and put in place certain restrictions to do with advertising practises (Wilcox et al. 2004). Studies have shown that the age range of 8-12 year olds spend $30 billion directly and influence $700 billion on family spending each year.This can be attributed to a relatively high extent to the fact that 46% of 5-14 year olds watch more than 20 hours of television per week with tens of thousands of TV ads shown per year (Neil 2012). Neil (2012) quotes that a child who watches 4 hours of TV per day over a 6 week holiday period would have viewed a total of 649 junk food ads including 404 advertisements for fast foods; 135 advertisements for soft drinks; and 44 for ice cream products. Until quite recently, advertisers viewed children around and under the age group of 8 as off limits when it came to advertising targets.However, industry practises have now developed and make for greater degrees of age niche advertising (Wilcox et al. 2004). Along with this growth in marketing efforts, there has become a rapid increase in the use psychological knowledge and research to effectively market products to young children. An example of this includes a study that was specifically designed to determine which strategy best induced children to nag their parents to buy the advertised product (Wilcox et al. 004). Exploitation refers to the idea of taking advantage of something you shouldn’t take advantage of. In relation to ads, advertisers are taking advantage of children’s lack of understanding, their innocence and their vulnerability to persuasion (Neil 2012). Young children tend to be particularly vulnerable to advertising as they do not fully understand the intent of advertisers and the process of creating an ad (Gunter, Oates & Blades 2005).Children are not born with any knowledge of economic systems with their awareness of advertising and marketing developing only gradually later in life. Adults too can be influenced by an ad, which is the reason for ads in general, but they are able to interpret the messages in the context of the advertisers’ intentions to prevent them from being exploited, unlike children (Gunter, Oates & Blades 2005). Neil (2012) states that children up to the age of 4 see ads merely as entertainment, progressing to believe advertisements provide information at ages 6-7.At ages 7-8 they still cannot distinguish between information and intent to persuade and once they reach 10-12 years they can understand the motives and aims of advertising but are still unable to explain sales techniques. The Australian Communications and Media Authority (2007) explain that advertisers may create advertisements that appeal to a child’s cognitive abilities. Research was conducted that indicates different age groups respond differently to formal stimuli in commercial, for example colour s attract younger children while message text attracts older children.This uses leverage of children’s cognitive development to entice the purchase of the product. Furthermore research on the language of advertisements, while used to promote products, may be purposefully constructed to confuse younger children at lower levels of cognitive development. Simple correlation research in the US indicates that children typically aged 2-6 years who view more television advertising request more products from their parents. This is known as pester power.It has been found that parents are more likely to buy products when kids ask for them in the shop (nag factor). As children age, they develop the cognitive capacity to contextualise and act critically on the observations made, reducing the amount of requests for products (Australian Communications and Media Authority, 2007). Children who are exposed to TV commercials for toys not only develop the initial idea for the toy but repeatedly pester their parents to buy it. This is exploitation on the arents’ behalf as it often causes parent-child conflict when the parents deny their children the product (Wilcox et al. 2004). Another troubling issue relating to child advertising exploitation is in reference to food ads. Half of the advertisements in the UK directed at children concern food. There are little ads emphasising healthy eating and since the start of television advertising, the largest proportion of ads aimed at children has always been unhealthy food products (Gunter, Oates & Blades 2005).The Australian Communications and Media Authority (2007) detailed the New South Wales Department of Health content analysis which found that 43% of all food advertising was for high fat/ high sugar foods and 36% was for core foods (such as breads, pasta). Additionally, approximately 48% of food advertising in times defined by the study as ‘children’s viewing times’ was for high fat/ high sugar foods . Consequently, children become confused and consider unhealthy foods to actually be healthy. Toys aren’t as controversial as they don’t exhibit the same health implications as do fast food ads.However, over-playing how good a toy is, or presenting misleading information is very unethical as children cannot comprehend some messages. The writing on the screen about disclosures are usually too quick to read or even understand as an adult, let alone a young child (Gunter, Oates & Blades 2005). Wilcox et al. (2004) demonstrates the exploiting nature of advertisers when it comes to tobacco and alcohol. A variety of studies show a substantial relationship between children’s viewing of these products in ads and positive attitudes toward consumption of such products.The studies conclude that advertising of tobacco and alcohol contributes to youth smoking and drinking. Characters from movies and television programmes often attract children’s attention with researc h indicating that the use of real life or animated characters is positively associated with memory and attitudes toward products and has the potential to confuse children as they do not realise they are getting paid for the advertisement so it is likely it’s not genuine promotion of a product (Gunter, Oates & Blades 2005). Another trick that advertisers use is on the BBC.BBC programs are â€Å"non-commercial† but some of the programs have been specifically designed to include products directed at children to make it harder for children to recognise when they are being targeted by marketers. This shows a negative change in children’s advertising. Body image is another major aspect of young children’s lives as they are vulnerable to their self-image (Gunter, Oates & Blades 2005). Advertisements use attractive people to sell products which reinforce the pressures on young people to conform to the ideals of beauty that are hard or near impossible to achieve.M arketing of dieting products therefore appeal to young children in recent times including primary school children. Currently there are regulations in place that have been implemented under the Children’s Television Standards in 1990, enforced by the Australian Broadcasting Tribunal. These include placing limitations on the broadcast of advertisements during ‘Children School Age’ programs (no ad more than twice in 30 minutes) and ‘Preschool Age’ programs (no ads at all).Also, no misleading or deceiving ads, no undue pressure on children to ask their parents to buy something or any unsuitable material including alcohol and cigarette ads, or demeaning/racists/sexist etc. ads(Australian Communications and Media Authority 2007). To further these regulations, many recommendations have been made. Wilcox et al (2004) suggested that while it is impossible to protect this age group from all commercial exposure, it is essential to restrict efforts made by adver tisers to focus primarily, if not exclusively, on this uniquely vulnerable portion of society.They also state that advertising disclaimers used in ads be stated in a language that children can read and understand and be shown in both visual and audial contexts in a time length that is conducive to reading, hearing and comprehending. For example, stating â€Å"You have to put it together† instead of â€Å"Partial assembly required† in toy ads. Gunter, Oates and Blades (2005) point out that advertisers usually argue against any extension of regulations, claiming that very young children, even from the age of 3, have some understanding of advertising.If this is so, it is not enough. A child’s recognition of advertisements is not the same as a child’s understanding of their persuasive intent. Some argue that rather than extending regulations, the most effective way to help children understand advertising is through their parents by informing kids of the natur e of ads. However as children become more independent with access to their own TVs, parents increasingly have less control over what children watch and less opportunity to discuss advertisements that might have been seen during family viewing.As well as the fact that parents often lack sufficient knowledge of regulators and their regulatory responsibilities. These excuses made by advertisers just show how ignorant they are in the potential harming of young children. In conclusion, advertisers know that their efforts greatly influence child audiences. Targeting children below the ages of 8 years is inherently unfair because it capitalises on younger children’s inability to sense persuasive intent in an advertisement.Due to this, children around and below this age are exploited as they take in information placed in commercials uncritically, accepting most of the claims and appeals put forward as truthful, accurate and unbiased. Reference Australian Communications and Media Auth ority 2007, Television Advertising to Children, accessed 6/9/2012, http://www. acma. gov. au/webwr/_assets/main/lib310132/television_advertising_to_children. pdf Gunter, B, Oates, C & Blades, M 2005, ‘The Issues About Television Advertising To Children’, in Advertising To Children On TV: Content, Impact, Regulation, Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, pp1-13.Neil, D 2012, PHIL106 ‘Advertising to Children’, lecture notes, accessed 1/9/2012, [email  protected] Wilcox, B, Kunkel, D, Cantor, J, Dowrick, P, Linn, S & Palmer, E 2004, ‘Report of the APA Task Force on Advertising and Children’, American Psychological Association Australian Association of National Advertisers, AANA Code for Advertising & Marketing Communications to Children, accessed 9/9/2012, http://www. aana. com. au/pages/aana-code-for-advertising-marketing-communications-to-children. html

Case 3: the O-Fold Innovation for Preventing Wrinkles

Case 3: The O-Fold Innovation for Preventing Wrinkles The O-Fold Innovation for Preventing Wrinkles: A Good Business Opportunity 1. Select which business model Alex should pursue and defend your answer. I choose for Alex to pursue the business model which employs the Crawl-Walk-Run Strategy. With this strategy, he can actually utilize some of the aspects of the other strategies to operate and profit from his business idea. The Crawl-Walk-Run strategy has a three step process of growing a company. The first phrase is the crawl phase in which Alex and his brother can produce the O-Folds themselves. They can market and distribute them locally, online or door-to-door. He can gather some market data to back up his business idea and also get a feel for things to expect when starting up a small business. This also will help with getting angel investors to get on board which will begin in the next phase. The walk phase is pitching the idea to angel investors, have a patent, a developed distribution channel and a marketing strategy. This may provide an exit strategy for investors and also for other companies to want to buy the O-Fold. The run phase would be the phase that Alex decides to continue with the company or sell his interest in the company. He also at this point would have to be producing large quantities. This strategy will allow Alex to make decisions at any of the three phases and he would have to restrict himself to only one. 2. Perform a SWOT analysis for the business model you selected. The following SWOT analysis captures some of the key elements that may strengthen or hinder the progress of O-Fold: Strengths Innovative and practical design; light weight and easy to carry †¢ With the increase in airline cost and the cost of luggage, having a carry-on that is spacious and convenient can do the trick. Weaknesses †¢ The company and product is new and doesn’t possess the consistent capital needed. Opportunities †¢ The product is relatively new to the market. †¢ There is a wealth of untargeted consumers and business opportunities. Threats †¢ Established, larger, more expe rienced companies that have already captured the commercial target market. Is the target market substantial enough to make a profit? 3. As a part of the management team, how would you handle distribution and marketing of the O-Fold? As a member of the Management team, I would start distributing locally. Going door-to-door to local residents; speaking to local luggage stores; establish a website and sell some there; place ads in the local paper. Once enough revenue comes in then we can advertise in travel magazines; airline catalogs and on airline websites. Another possible suggestion would be to open a small store at the airport where we can have our target market right at our finder tips. 4. What is the exit strategy for your selected business model, how long will it take you, and what key points will signal the time to exit? As a part of the management team, I would suggest that between 4 to 5 years or once there are new entrants to the market, Alex should sell his interest and allow another more experienced company to acquire the company. 5. Research on your own how angel investing deals are designed. Then outline and defend the features of the deal that you would pitch to investors (funds provided, interest rate, equity, etc. ) The product of O-Fold is an innovative design that can be convenient for business professional during their travel. It is also made for anyone who has had trouble with wrinkles while travelling. Our strategy is focused differentiated with a cost that is high end. We believe that by year 5, interest rate can be about 6%; a return on equity of about 10% and revenue of averaging $100K. 6. At what points should Alex consider bringing on additional management? What positions should he fill and in what order? Defend your answer. Alex should bring on additional management at the Walk stage. He is going to need a lawyer; an accountant; a marketing manager and an assembly manager. At this stage, he can assess the progress of the company and decide if he wants to continue with building the company or exit. His management team can also guide him in making those crucial decisions. 7. What are some pricing strategies you would consider utilizing in order to get the O-Fold to market? Do you agree with Alex’s pricing point? I believe that O-Fold should be a luxury line and the price should be reasonably high. I say this because the target market would be business professionals and persons who would require their attire to be wrinkled free. I do believe that Alex’s pricing point is reasonable and can give him a profitable margin if he is catering for a wider range of the market target to include basically everyone that travels. Reference: Thompson, A. , et al (2010). Crafting & Executing Strategy: The Quest for competitive advantage (8th ed. ). McGraw-Hill Irwin

Risk management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Risk management - Assignment Example Therefore, in order to reduce the effects of risks so as to maintain the functioning of the organization in an effective way, risk management practices are extremely essential. It is because; it is the most synonyms term associated with each and every business organizations. What is risk management? Risk management is recognised as the process to identify, assess and control varied types of business risks by implementing various strategies and policies. However, in spite of implementation of varied types of strategies, some of the risks are entirely unpredictable in nature and so it’s beyond one’s control. Therefore, it might be stated that risks management is one of the most essential requirements of any organization, operating successfully or desiring to enter into a new foreign market. This paper is divided into four parts highlighting the significance of risk management processes. Along with this, it also describes about the most essential risk management decisions of an organization entering a foreign market. Side by side, it also describes the importance of direct costs and its benefits for an organization, while entering a new market. ... Side by side, any organization desiring to enter into a foreign market also tries to enhance its brand image and equity in the market among other contenders. However, prior entering any new foreign market, an organization desires to make an evaluation plan to analyse and identify the upcoming risks or challenges. It is done so that the members of the organization might plan for the strategies that might resolve those risks. Therefore, the risks that might be faced by an organization in entering a foreign market are described below- Political risks- this type of risks arises, when the government of a country suddenly changes its policies and strategies. However, such changes in the policies create high level of risks mainly for the new entrants (Khatta, 2008, pp. 457-469). This is because, as the organization newly entering a foreign market is entirely unaware about the policies and regulations so it affects negatively over its operations and functions. As a result, it reduces the tot al sale and profit margin of the organization among other contenders. Therefore, in order to stabilise the operations, management of the organization tried to implement the strategies according to the rules and regulations of that country (Tarantino, 2010, pp. 467-489). Legal risks- this type of risks arises due to changes in laws of the country such as tariffs and quotas etc. Due to which, it affects significantly on the operations and profit margin of a new entrant thereby declining its brand image and reputation in that market among others. Therefore, in order to cope up with such dilemma, the organization desires to enhance its profit margin and product lines to attract more customers. Social risks- the changes in the customer habits and preferences

IT SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT COURSEWORK PART 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

IT SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT COURSEWORK PART 2 - Essay Example The IT groups within the company are always working round the clock to put in place architecture and tools which will support the company process. Delma SSS has implemented the Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) a technology which is meant to make re-orientation to their core technology that will ensure new consumption patterns are in place (Rajput 2000). Even though Service Oriented Software (SOA) has been used in the past to support data integration and system rationalization, SOA has been realized to provide a technical basis for the sake of business improvement processes of Delma SSS. SOA has characteristics that enhance simplification, flexibility, consistency, ease of change and encapsulation which are helpful in helping the IT department within Delma SSS implement constant improvements. The Service Oriented Architecture is quite valuable and its tools are fundamentally focused as it presents an atomic view of the functions and data that Delma SS supports. The only challenge i s that the business manager with a list of services of which they may not know how to operate some of them in the efforts of the company to improve in the future (Footen & Faust 2008). To help this challenge the SOA needs a partner in the equation to further improvements of the IT solutions. Delma SSS therefore integrates the Business process Management (BPM) technology to work in conjunction with the SOA for the sake of consistent improvement of the technological operations of the Company (Grembergen 2002). Business Process Management (BPM) is used by the company to enable their business teams to provide a competitive advantage when driving the improvement of operations of the company. The competitive advantage of Business Process Management (BPM) to aid SOA is realized through self sufficiency in terms of process discovery, better prioritization and requirement of the requests made to the technical teams. Furthermore, the BPM presents a more efficient environment for collaboration with the ability to drive requirements down in the SOA layer (Footen & Faust 2008). With the projected revenue growth of the company by 45% in the next few years, Delma SSS decided that it needs to improve its core business processes for the support of a high revenue realization with low staffing growth. A simple functional architecture of what this process looks like is as shown:- The red side components of the figure represent the familiar elements of SOA. This IT component provides an architecture that gives room for rationalizing of data across all its multiple stores. Just apart from ensuring there is cost reduction, SOA provides a model for abstracting out system-specific calls (Footen & Faust 2008). These services then are really better ways to expose and govern the hard-core IT assets so that they can be more easily consumed and therefore more easily re-used. The building of access to data as presented by the system means that a consolidation and dynamism specific underlyin g data structures and engines, this is not only easier now but in the future. SOA also provides the tools that technical teams will use to build out the services that implement a business process. However, at this point, technical teams need the input from their business counterparts about which events matter, who uses the specific business services and when. In short, how these services are

Participation and Discussion Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Participation and Discussion Questions - Essay Example A specific ethical challenge an accountant could be confronted with is encountering a client that wants to underestimate the net income in order to lower his tax obligations. Accountants are not supposed to accommodate these types of requests from clients because it violates the code of ethics of the accounting profession as well as the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Another ethical concern in regards to financial performance is payroll policies. Companies can decrease their labor costs by paying below market value to its employees, but such a practice can be counterproductive because personnel will be persuaded to leave the company and work for a competitor that pays better. 2. Discussion questions The Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002 helped improved many aspects of the accounting profession that had ethical implications. For instance Section 404 of SOX deals with internal controls. These internal controls can be used to detect misappropriations and fraud. The Act increa sed the accountability of the profession. CEOs are now responsible for the accuracy of the financial statements. If fraud is detected the Sarbanes Oxley Act created capital punishment penalties of up to 25 years in prison. Sarbanes Oxley positive impacted Wall Street because it increased the customer confidence in the stock market. SOX helped safeguard the assets of a company. The Sarbanes Oxley Act also created auditor independence. The Enron scandal showed that how collusion can occur between and auditors and the managers when auditor independence does not exists. There things that could be done to improve the efficiency of the SOX law. Currently it is costing public companies over $1 million for compliance costs. The Sarbanes Oxley Act should be revised to eliminate the waste or inefficient processes that are causing compliance cost to escalate in the United States of America. Agency problems were reduced in companies that are complying in the Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002. 3. Parti cipation - Gigi I agree with you to a certain extend that the use of cameras can be perceived as a breach of privacy, but in reality business are protected by the law because they have to right to monitor the work of its employees. A grey area in the practice is the usage of hidden cameras. The employee should know if they are being recorded by video. It is my opinion that hidden cameras without the knowledge of the employee that they are been recorded is unethical and could be violating civil rights, but I am not a lawyer. If anybody knows the answer to this please continue the discussion going. 4. Participation – David Accounting is a profession that functions well when the accounting staff has high moral and ethical standards. There have been rotten apples in the corporate world that have caused major accounting scandals such as WorldCom, Tyco, and Enron, but the majority of accountants are very honest people. All accountants know they have to comply with the generally acc epted accounting principles (GAAP). A lot of people don’t realize that accounting is a precise science that when prepared following GAAP will always give the same results. Currently the NBA and the players are on a lockout. To me it is sad that the players are claiming that the accounting losses of $300 million that the league suffered are not true considering the fact that a CPA certified those numbers. 5. Participation - Taneda I agree with you that ethics is extremely important in the business

The Discharge of Water in the Design of the Channel Statistics Project

The Discharge of Water in the Design of the Channel - Statistics Project Example In the analysis of the graphs, the bar graph would indicate that the amount of rainfall in the river would cause the river water to rise. We can notice that there is almost a steady flow of water until after a rainstorm. The amount of rainfall is indicated in the bar graph while the rise of water in the river is indicated in the line graph. As the water rises in the river, the height of the water is recorded, and the amount of rainfall is computed. Normally the rise of water in a river occurs after a storm rainfall. The discharge is measured at a certain point in a river and is typically time variant. As the line graph is plotted, the part of the hydrograph rises up to its peak and the discharge is seen. The term given to this process in the hydrograph is the rising limb. The decrease of water discharge comes after the rising limb and it is defined as the falling limb. The peak discharge is when water reaches its highest point and there is the greatest amount of water in the river. T he period of time that is recorded between the peak rainfall and peak discharge is called the lag time. In the study of Cynon River that was performed, a total of 96 hours was consumed. The reading in the river height was taken every hour until the end of the 96th hour. At the end of the 96th hour, a hydrograph was plotted to take into considerations the result of the river height readings. A bar graph was plotted for the rainfall, and a line graph was plotted for the discharge. From the hydrograph, we can see how the water in the river had risen. The graph showed that the rise of water started in the 44th hour. The peak point was reached on the 56th hour.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF AN ARTICLE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF AN ARTICLE - Essay Example Abstracts are meant to let readers know what to expect in an article they are about to read; this article, according to the author investigates, in form of a case study, a control framework resulting from a strategic lean manufacturing initiative in a natural environment. The author suggests that, a theoretical framework is developed that assists in comprehending accounting practices, organizational structure, and control choices associated with lean manufacturing (Kennedy & Widener 2008). Additionally, the abstract is very clear about numerous bidirectional and intervening relations that the article identifies. The introduction is very informative, extensive and well researched; it makes reference to various studies by different authors. It thus offers a vivid introduction to various concepts of business systems such as total preventive maintenance TPM, JIT, and TQM. It is interesting how the author dedicates time to offer readers with a vivid background on lea accounting coupled with a clear mention of the aims and objectives of the study (Kennedy & Widener 2008). Finally, the introduction outlines how the article would be subdivided from literature review, to a discussion on methodology, case study description, summary and

Human Resource Development and Management D5-8 Essay

Human Resource Development and Management D5-8 - Essay Example There are a number of training models which an organization can make use of. One of these is The Systems Approach to Training (SAT) which includes different stages including need analysis, course design, delivery and evaluation or quality assurance. The environment during the implementation of this training should be supportive on part of the human resource department. The human resource departments should manage and assist the employees during all the stages of this model. Most of the employees find it difficult to adjust to changes in the workplace and therefore, in order to help them get accustomed to these changes, the management needs to provide full support to them during this process (Jay Forte, 2011). As far as the transfer environment is concerned, effective and efficient transfer of knowledge and skills should be done just before the employee has to practically implement them. This will help the employee retain and effectively use these skills taught during the training ses sions (Suzanna Simpson, n.d). a) Human Resource Planning and Training Model for Organizations Experiencing Change. (n.d.). Evan Carmichael. Retrieved February 4, 2013, from http://www.evancarmichael.com/Human-Resources/6158/Human-Resource-Planning-and-Training-Model-for-Organizations-Experiencing-Change.html b) Create a workplace learning and training environment | Mindflash. (n.d.). Create Online Training | Online Training Software | Mindflash. Retrieved February 4, 2013, from http://www.mindflash.com/blog/2011/06/why-every-great-workplace-needs-a-classroom-environment/ 2. Performance appraisal is a management tool. As such, managers may use the power of the tool in various ways. For example, a manager may use overly positive performance ratings as a reward for someone who spearheaded a project for the manager. Likewise, a manager may use overly harsh ratings as punishment for someone who objected to a project the manager promoted. As a leader in an organization, what steps would y ou take to ensure that the performance appraisal system is fair to all employees? Substantiate your opinions by using outside sources. Performance appraisal is a system through which management evaluates the performance of the employees to find areas of further growth and improvement (Performance Appraisals, n.d). This system has a number of advantages and fulfills a number of objectives for the organization including increased motivation and job satisfaction of the workers. It is a program through which manager`s expectations are communicated to the employees and their ratings are then measured. However, managers are sometimes biased towards some employees due to the recent job performances. Therefore, it should be made sure that the performance appraisals are carried out in an equitable and fair way. In order to ensure a fair and equitable system, an organization should use a multi source assessment method to prevent any biases on part of the raters evaluating the employees. The r aters should be given proper training so that they do not take out personal grudges or favor some employees. For equitable assessment, managers should relate performance appraisals to employee goals and evaluate the performance of employees based on specific criteria. This will help the managers prevent judgments based on personal biases (Can appraisal process be fair, n.d). a) Can performance

Marriott Hotel Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Marriott Hotel - Essay Example On travel and tourism competitive index for 2013, UK stands on the leading 5th rank among 140 countries (Blanke and Chiesa, 2013). All these provide opportunity to Marriott to continuously grow and expand in UK. . ECONOMICAL Recession in the UK economy had affected the purchasing power of people and it had a negative impact on the tourism industry as well. The recovery has started but customers are still on hold due to the inflationary pressures unemployment due to Euro zone crises (Ernst & Young, 2012). The Travel and Tourism index of 140 countries rank UK on 10th position for business environment while natural resources availability that is critical for this industry is immensely attractive and ranks on third place (Blanke and Chiesa, 2013). Hence, the revival of the economy holds attractive opportunity for Marriot. SOCIO-CULTURE The consumer behaviour is changing continuously and the trends are modifying all across the world. Human and cultural resources for the hospitality indust ry are in abundance in the UK and country ranks on sixth and third respectively on the competitive index for Travel and Tourism (Blanke and Chiesa, 2013). The tech-savvy element has taken dominant place in culture and hotel are steering strategies to adopt changes all across value chain (Ernst & Young, 2013). Marriot is consistently accounting this element of change in social trends such as Marriot took initiative and went digital on wine (Incentive Travel, 2013). TECHNOLOGICAL Technological advancement is at its peak everywhere. Conventional ways are converting in to digital ways. The online existence of the firms is now looking necessary (Mcindoe, 2013). Technological advancement has also affected the... Identifying the role of environment for the business, this report is aimed to analyse the impact business environment on the performance of the organisation. The environmental assessment explores the impact of political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal factors in the business. For the last two decades the impact of technology has changed the structure of every industry either it is service industry or product industry. The technology is now considered as one of the basic driver of growth. Among various industries, hospitality industry has also received a great impact of technological advancement in the last decade. Nowadays, customer convenience and satisfaction is considered as a one of the most effective tool in the service industry to get the competitive advantage. Marriot always focused on adapting the emerging and latest trends to stay competitive in the market. Competitive strategies that are followed by Marriott and its rivals are highly similar and hence each one is trying to gain the edge by loyalty programs and other technological adoptions. All the competitors and Marriot is continuously making efforts to sustain its position in the market. The environmental analysis has conducted to understand the impact of internal and external forces on the organisation. Since, technological advancement has had a great impact on almost every business in the world and so hospitality industry is affected significantly. Therefore, efforts to employ technological advancements by Marriot to remain competitive have been discussed with insight recommendations. Some media sources are mentioned in the repo rt to analyse the evolving behavior of the organisation. In all that Marriot is competing successfully in UK hospitality industry. However, it needs to make a consistent research on understanding the changing consumer needs and preferences. It is worth mentioning that recovery in UK economy is creating the opportunity of business expansions. Marriott should focus on this phase and increase its marketing efforts to attract new customers initially in this phase.

Gender Inequality in the Workforce Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Gender Inequality in the Workforce - Essay Example Sexism is defined as a mindset or a belief that one sex is better or superior to another (Padavic & Reskin, 2002). It is actually discrimination based on gender. Males and females both can become the victim of sexism but usually, in workplaces, women face gender discrimination. Mostly gender discrimination is related to salaries, promotions, and recruitment. Also on a day to day situations, women encounter sexism. Â  Stereotypes are another form of popular belief about a particular group of individuals. These beliefs have no rational or logical basis but still, they are quite ubiquitous. Stereotypes can be related to genders, race, nationality or ethnicity. Any preconception about a social group without any logical and reasonable evidence can be categorized as stereotypes. They also play a role in discrimination in workplaces. Â  Both of these issues persist in workplaces today. This is mainly because of the diversity of the organizations. Today companies hire a diverse group of employees from different cultures and different genders. Because of this diversity issues like stereotypes and sexism come up regularly in organizations. Â  Females face both sexism and stereotypes. This is because of the mindset of the society regarding their kind. It was only in the 20th century when women were given the right to vote. Before them, they were considered unimportant to such an extent that their say in elections was not deemed important. Women are fighting with the same attitude even today in workplaces. The idea of female emancipation is not easy to digest for the society as a whole.

China Child Policy Essay Example for Free

China Child Policy Essay One of the things that people love and appreciate about the U.S.A is the fact that it’s a free country. There is about 322 million people that live in the U.S, each day marks thousands of new lives and deaths. Some people, like myself enjoy big and crowded families so they usually have more than 1 child. Now imagine having three kids and have two of them taken away from you because you’re not supposed to have more than 1. It sounds unfair and controlling but in China the â€Å"one child policy takes place†. China’s one child policy was first announced in 1979 by the Chinese president Deng Xiaoping as a method of controlling the fast growing population to help raise living standards. The policy limits couples to one child. In 1983 fourteen million women in china had abortions forced and organized by the same family-planning committee that killed Feng’s baby. In 2009, there were six million abortions. Now the government is working on letting certain couples have an extra child but only if both parties were born under the one child policy and had no siblings growing up. That way they prevent a drastic decrease in the population. I, personally think it’s unfair and too controlling of the Chinese government to control how many kids a family can have because it’s cruel and unfair to break up families like that. If a woman dares to get pregnant a second time, fines, pressures to abort the baby, and even forced sterilization will accompany her through her second pregnancy. For example a 23 year-old Chinese girl called Feng Jiamei was forced into abortion in the seventh month of pregnancy, the baby was killed by local Chinese â€Å"family-planning officials.† For one thing, people should have the freedom to decide how big a family they want. China’s once child policy takes away Chinese people’s human rights. Most Chinese kids don’t know what it feels like to have siblings, aunties, uncles, cousins etc. The Chinese government basically a dictatorship because they tell people how to run their families. China’ s one child policy takes away from the people’s human rights and I believe the Chinese population should rise up against the government and the â€Å"one child policy† policy because that’s unfair and the punishments such as forced abortion and sterilization are cruel and unusual. Chinese people need to rise up one day and let their voices be heard.

Effect of CR Supplementation on Athletic Performance

Effect of CR Supplementation on Athletic Performance Introduction To succeed in a given sport at any level of competition, athletes must possess specific physiologic, psychologic, and biomechanic traits critical to success in that sport, but they must also receive optimal physical, mental, and biomechanical training to maximise this genetic potential (Williams, Kreider Branch, 1999). However many athletes believe that the combination of genetic traits and optimal training alone are not sufficient to achieve maximum performance, therefore the use of ergogenic aids has become common to improve sports performance beyond the effect of training (Sundgot-Borgen, Berglund Torstveit, 2003). The use of ergogenic aids will allow athletes to gain that competitive advantage over opponents therefore leading to potential success. According to Williams, Kreider Branch, (1999) ergogenic aids are substances or treatments that are theoretically designed to enhance physical power, mental strength or mechanical edge therefore potentially improving athletic performa nce. Given the various demands of team sports such as Soccer, Rugby and Hockey, which require short intermittent bouts of high intensity exercise which are interspersed by low level exercise, it seems feasible the use of ergogenic aids in such sports may enhance and benefit performance to gain that competitive edge over opponents. One ergogenic aid which has become popular among amateur, professional and recreational athletes over recent years is Creatine Monohydrate (Cr). Creatine is a naturally occurring amino acid derivative which is found in skeletal muscle, but is also a normal dietary constituent with a daily requirement of approximately 2 to 3 grams depending on body size (Ostojic, 2001). The majority of creatine in muscles is stored in the form of phosphocreatine (PCr) which serves as an important contributor to energy metabolism during high intensity exercise (Williams, Kreider Branch, 1999). PCr provides the high energy phosphate for adenine diphosphate (ADP) to restore adenine triphosphate (ATP) concentration rapidly via the Cr kinase (CK) reaction (Clarkson, 1996). Hultman, Bergstrom and McLennan-Anderson, (1967) demonstrated that depletion of PCr stores within the muscles can lead to a decline in athletic performance during high intensity exercise, so theoretically increasing PCr stores through Cr supplementation would enhance the ability to maintain high intensity exercise over a prolonged period of time, leading to increases in sporting performance. Ahmun (2005) and Hultman, Soderlund, Timmons, Cederblad, Greenhaff, (1996) demonstrated that the average Cr concentration in human muscle can be increased through Cr supplementation over a 7 day period from 20% pre Cr to 50% post Cr. Since PCr is a substrate for the ATP-PCr energy system which is essential for high intensity exercise of 30 seconds or less it seems logical that the supplementation of Cr would be beneficial to exercise tasks of this duration. Therefore the majority of previous research has focused on bouts of anaerobic performance of To date the effect of Cr supplementation on athletic performance has been widely researched. This includes include positive effects of Cr supplementation over a prolonged period of over 4 weeks which is otherwise known as the maintenance phase (Knehans, Bemben, Bemben and Loftiss, 1998; Larson, Hunter, Trowbridge, Turk, Harbin and Torman, 1998). Also demonstrated have been positive effects of Cr supplementation on exercise performance using a shorter ingestion period known as the loading phase (Stout, Echerson, Noonan, Moore, and Cullen, 1999; Volek, Boetes, Bush, Putukian, Sebastianelli and Kraemer, 1997a). This includes improvements in performance variables such as strength, speed and delaying the onset of fatigue (Okudan and Gokbel, 2004; Volek, Kraemer, Bush, Boetes, Incledon, Clark and Lynch 1997b; Kocak Karli , 2003) Team sports consist of repeated bouts of intermittent high intensity exercise therefore consistently relying on the ATP-PCr energy system which if depleted can have a major factor on performance and the outcome of a game (Ostojic, 2004). One such sport which consists of repeated bouts of high intensity exercise is soccer. Soccer players are required to produce high power outputs and maintain or repeat them with only a few seconds of recovery, (Reilly and Williams, 2003). Such high intensity instances could be the deciding factor of a game, for example sprinting back to make a game saving tackle or sprinting past a defender to the ball to make a shot. One high intensity exercise instance which occurs in a soccer match are bouts of sprinting, which are estimated to consist of 8.1% of a 90 minute match and occur approximately every 90 seconds lasting between two to four seconds in duration (Bangsbo, Norregard Thorso, 1991). Given the fact that there is considerable support for Cr as an ergogenic aid it would be reasonable to suggest that a soccer players sprint performance would benefit from Cr supplementation. However there is minimal research which has looked into the effects of Cr on sprint performance and variables of soccer match play such as agility running, lateral stepping and running backwards( Cox, Mujika, Tumilty and Burke 2002; Ostojic, 2004; Mujika, Padilla, Ibanez, Izquierdo and Gorostiaga, 2000). The aforementioned studies have determined the effects of Cr on elite soccer players, female soccer players and youth soccer players (Ostojic, 2004; Mujika et al., 2000; Smart et al 1998; Cox et al., 2002). However there is no present research that looks into the effects of acute ( Another aspect to consider upon testing the effects of Cr on sprint performance on amateur soccer players is the protocol to be used. Although there have been many protocols which have been designed to measure and simulate soccer performance, plenty of these have failed to adequately simulate the different movement patterns (sprinting, walking, running backwards, lateral stepping) which are involved in a game of soccer (Drust, Reilly and Cable, 2000; Abt, Reaburn, Holmes and Gear, 2003; Thatcher and Batterham, 2004). It seems rational that when assessing components of soccer performance that the protocol that is utilised replicates the different activity patterns and demands of soccer match. If this is not taken into consideration it becomes difficult to determine whether Cr supplementation will have any benefit on soccer performance. Therefore the utilised protocol needs to concisely replicate movement patterns in soccer so that a valid assumption can be made to determine the erogen eity of acute Cr supplementation on sprint performance in amateur soccer players. Thus the purpose of this study is to conduct an investigation that will determine the effect of acute Cr supplementation on sprint performance in Caucasian male amateur soccer players, using a soccer simulation protocol in an accurate, valid and reliable manner with two trials consisting over a 7 day period. Concluding whether or not acute Cr supplementation can be used as an ergogenic aid to improve a footballers sprint performance, therefore recommending to athletes and coaches alike. Literature Review Creatine Monohydrate: Background Creatine monohydrate is one of the most popular sporting supplements in the world today and is used by high school athletes, the elderly, professional and recreational athletes in the hope of improving physical performance (Bemben and Lamont, 2005). It is the most commonly available Cr supplement and the form primarily used in most research studies. Cr monohydrate comes in a number of forms including powder, tablets, gel, liquid, chewing gum and candy (Williams, Kreider and Branch, 1999, p.43). Greenhaff (1997) indicated powdered Cr, ingested with solution to have a quicker absorption rate at raising muscle Cr concentration than using Cr supplementation of a tablet form. Conversely Vuckovich and Michaelis (1999) reported no significant difference in absorption rate between the two different forms. Dosage methods The supplementation dosages of Cr can be broken down into two different phases, otherwise known as the loading phase and maintenance phase. The loading phase that is commonly used in research consists of ingesting daily, 20-30g of Cr in four equal doses of 5-7g dissolved in around 250ml of fluid interspersed throughout the course of the day (preferably morning, noon, afternoon and evening) for a period of 5 to 7 days (Greenhaff, 1997; Kreider, 1997). Hultman et al (1996) utilised a less intense loading method of 3g/day for 28 days and proposed it to be just as effective as the aforementioned loading protocol. However this method places a longer dependency on subjects to comply with the supplementation program, therefore placing more variables into the reliability of results. Following the loading phase, maintenance dosages are considerably lower. Most research investigating the effects of Cr using the maintenance phase, have utilised dosages of 3 to 15g over a 4 to 10 week period (Bemben et al., 2001; Kreider et al., 1998; Stone et al., 1999; Vandenberghe et al., 1997). It is recommended to consume Cr with warm water, as it facilitates the dissolving of the solution and also aid absorption (Harris et al., 1992). It should also be noted that the ingestion of caffeine during Cr supplementation eradicates its potential ergogenic effect (Vandenberghe et al., 1996; Van Leemputte, Vanstapel Hespel, 1997). Vandenberghe et al (1996) demonstrated that a control group that ingested Cr combined with caffeine to have a lessened ergogenic potential compared to a group that ingested Cr without caffein e during repeated bouts of high intensity exercise. Side effects There is no conclusive scientific evidence to suggest that Cr ingestion has any negative side effects utilising the proposed dosage methods ( Larson et al., 1998; Schroder, Terrados Tramullas, 2005). There is further evidence to support this as Kreider et al (1999) found no negative side effects in athletes who had been ingesting Cr for up to 3 years. Poortmans and Francaux (1999) demonstrated similar findings for athletes for taking Cr for up to 5 years. Only undocumented anecdotal reports have reported any adverse negative side effects through Cr supplementation, this includes gastrointestinal distress, muscle cramping and dehydration (Associated press 1997, 1998). Taking dehydration into consideration such anecdotal research can be scrutinised. Oopik, Timpmann and Medijainen, (1995) demonstrated that Cr supplementation increased body mass, while also reporting increases in total body water. Such findings signify that Cr supplementation may prevent dehydration rather than be a cause, due to the fact it can promote water retention. Cr supplementation has been demonstrated to increase body mass by up to 2kg over an acute period of time (Balsom et al., 1995; Becque et al., 1997). This could be recognised as a negative side effect for athletes that compete in weight control sports, as Cr ingestion may impede their ability to make regulated weight in a forthcoming event. This gives a consensus that athletes in such activities need to be made aware that although Cr can promote gains in strength and power, it can increase body mass. Physiology of Soccer Soccer players are frequently required to produce high power outputs and maintain of repeat them with only a few seconds of recovery (Reilly and Thomas, 2003). This includes intermittent bouts of kicking, tackling, turning, sprinting, changing pace and maintaining balance and control of the ball whilst under pressure from an opponent (Wisloff, Helgerud Hoff, 1998). To gain a scientific perspective of the different physiological demands of soccer performance, match and time motion analysis have been utilised (Bangsbo, 1994). This analysis has allowed researchers to determine the overall workload of players during a 90 minute match by calculating total distance covered, and the pattern of activities performed during a game (e.g. sprinting, cruising, walking etc). Movement patterns of Soccer It is estimated that the total distance covered during a 90 minute soccer match varies from 8.7km to 11.5km ( Bangsbo Lindquist, 1992; Ekblom, 1986; Ohashi et al., (1988); Reilly and Thomas, 1976; 1988; Rampini et al., 2007; Wade, 1962). The large variance in distances covered are due in part to the differing styles of play, levels of competition and skill level of the teams that were utilised (Luxbacher, 1997). Reilly (1994) documented the different activity patterns of elite outfield players from the English top division and other major national leagues in Europe and Japan using different methods of match analysis. Results found that a 90 minute match consists of 24% walking, 36% jogging, 20% cruising sub maximally (striding), 11% sprinting, 7% moving backwards and 2% moving in possession of the ball. The categories of sprinting and cruising are defined as high intensity exercise. In terms of distances covered the ratio of low intensity exercise to high intensity exercise during a soccer match is 7 to 1 denoting that the outlay of energy for soccer is predominately aerobic ( Reilly and Thomas, 1976). However the importance for high intensity bouts during soccer match play should not be underestimated. The timing of such a bout could be the defining factor of a game whether in possession of the ball or without the ball. Although work-rate profiles are relatively consistent for players from game to game it is the high intensity exercise which is the most constant feature (Bangsbo, 1994). The number of sprints reported in a soccer game varies greatly from 17 to 62 (Bangsbo et al., 1991; Mohr, Krustrup Bangsbo, 2003). This variance is largely determined by the positional role of the player. Findings by Reilly (1996) demonstrated that midfielders and strikers completed more sprinting bouts than centre backs or full backs therefore relying more on the anaerobic energy system. However if there is not a prolonged recovery period or an individual is not properly conditioned they will not subsequently recovery from high intensity bouts of exercise and fatigue will occur (Reilly, 1996). This is evident as Reilly (1996, p.72) documented that the majority of goals conceded during a soccer match occurred in the final ten minutes of play. A popular theory for this occurrence has been found to be mental fatigue or lapses in concentration from defenders (Reilly, 1996, p.72). However this can theory can be scrutinised as research found that the onset of fatigue in intermittent exercise such as soccer is caused by low muscle glycogen stores (Balsom et al., 1999). Acute Cr supplementation and sprint performance in team sports Athletes in team sports such as soccer, rugby, hockey and American football are required to repeatedly reproduce intermittent bouts of high intensity exercise with minimal recovery. Being able to consistently reproduce such bouts at maximal ability (e.g. sprinting, jumping, running backwards) could be the deciding factor in competition to gain that extra edge of an opponent. During high intensity exercise of an intermittent nature the main contributor of energy is PCr (Williams, Kreider Branch, 1999, p29). Depletion of PCr stores during high intensity exercise has been found to be a factor which has lead to a decline in athletic performance (Hultman, Bergstrom and McLennan-Anderson, 1967). Through the supplementation of Cr, it hypothesised that PCr stores are replenished at a faster rate therefore improving an athletes ability to recover and perform intermittent high intensity bouts of exercise, leading to improved athletic performance (Greenhaff et al, 1993). There have been various studies that have tested this hypothesis by investigating the ergogenic effect of acute Cr supplementation on sprint performance of athletes in team sports (Ahmun et al., 2005; Cornish, Chilibeck Burke, 2006; Izquierdo et al., 2001; Kocak Karli, 2003; Romer et al., 2001; Vandebuerie et al., 1998). However the aforementioned studies have contrasting findings with a quantity of studies finding a significant improvement in sprint performance through Cr supplementation (Izquierdo et al., 2001; Romer et al., 2001; Vandebuerie et al., 1998). On the contrary other studies have found no significant improvements in sprint performance through acute Cr ingestion (Ahmun et al., 2005; Cornish, Chilibeck Burke, 2006; Kocak Karli, 2003). Ahmun et al., (2005) investigated the ergogenic effect of Cr on sprint performance in male rugby players. For this study a Wingate test protocol was utilised prior and post Cr supplementation. Findings of this study were that there was no significant improvement in maximal cycle sprints through Cr ingestion. However in contrast Izquierdo et al., (2001) found that acute Cr supplementation improved sprint times in male hand ball players. For this study subjects were either assigned Cr or placebo over a 5 day period. The protocol that was utilised consisted of repeated sprint runs that were consistent with sprint distances achieved during handball match play. One issue that could have had a determining factor of the non significant results found by Ahmun et al (2005) is the protocol that was utilised. A Wingate test was utilised to test the sprint performance in rugby players, however the relevance of a Wingate test to measure rugby performance is not sports specific there scrutinising the validity of the results. In contrast Izquierdo et al (2001) utilised a protocol which successfully replicated distances found in handball match play therefore maintaining validity. Ahmun et al (2005) also failed to incorporate a dietary analysis into the experimental design of the protocol, therefore whether or not Cr stores within the subjects utilised were full cannot be determined, which gives rationale for results showing no significant improvement. In contrast Izquierdo et al (2001) implemented a dietary examination of subjects that were utilised; this was initiated to determine whether any subjects had ingested Cr or any ergogenic aids prior to baseline testing. This assisted with maintaining validity during research. This can be supported by Romer et al (2001) and Vandebuerie et al (1998) who utilised a protocol containing a dietary analysis and concluded a significant improvement in sprint times within subjects. Cr supplementation and Soccer performance Given the intermittent physical demands of soccer, which requires players to produce high power outputs and maintain or repeat them with only a few seconds of recovery, (Reilly and Williams, 2003) it seems feasible that soccer players would benefit from the supplementation of Cr as an ergogenic aid to improve their overall performance. However research that has investigated the effect on acute Cr supplementation on different variables of soccer performance and predominately sprint performance utilising a soccer simulation protocol is limited (Ostojic, 2004; Mujika et al 2000; Cox et al 2002). The Aforementioned studies have primarily focused on the effects of Cr supplementation on highly trained athletes that are competing at a high standard of competition. However no previous research has looked into the effects of acute Cr supplementation on amateur soccer players. Being as though Cr monohydrate is an immensely popular ergogenic aid not only among professional athletes but also amateur and recreational athletes, the benefit to amateur athletes needs to recognised. Previous research that has looked into the effects of acute Cr supplementation on soccer players using a soccer simulation protocol is discussed below. Ostojic (2004) examined the effects of acute Cr supplementation (3 x 10g doses for 7 days) on 20 young male soccer players (16.6 Â ± 1.9 years). For the testing procedure a double blind method was used and where subjects were either administered either Cr or placebo. Subjects completed two separate trials prior and post to Cr or placebo. The testing procedure consisted of a number of soccer specific skill tests which included a dribble test, sprint-power test, endurance test and a vertical jump test. Results found that there was a significant improvement in a number of the soccer specific tests; this includes superior improvements in sprint times, vertical jump scores and the dribble test. However no significant improvements were made on endurance performance after the two trials. Although a significant improvement was found in vertical jump performance, it is of concern to future researchers to whether the vertical jump test that was utilised during the design is a soccer specific test. During the test subjects were instructed to keep their trunk as straight as possible whilst keeping their hands on their hips to avoid contribution from the arms which doesnt successfully replicate jumping movements in soccer therefore questioning the validity of the vertical jump test as to whether or not it is a measure of soccer specific performance. The age of the subjects in this research can also be scrutinised. Eichner, King, Myhal, Prentice and Ziegenfuss (1999) confirmed that there was insufficient research to determine the acute and chronic side effects of Cr consumption in athletes under the age of 18 therefore places the subjects which were used in the mentioned study under possible risk. Eichner et al (1999) also highlighted that Cr supplementation in young athletes could have a possible degradation of ethics, by where a win at all costs mentality is fostered and an attitude by where ergogenic aids are necessary to win, which is the wrong message to be installing in young athletes. Likewise Mujika, Padilla, Ibanez, Izquerido and Gorostiaga (2000) concluded acute Cr supplementation (20g a day x 6 days) significantly improved sprint performance and found no significant improvement in endurance performance using a soccer simulation protocol. Mujika et al (2000) also documented no increase in vertical jump performance using a similar protocol to Ostojic (2004) which has minimal significance in a soccer simulation study. Mujika et al (2000) tested 19 elite male soccer players who at the time of investigation were highly trained, however only 17 fully completed the testing due to illness or injury. The protocol for this investigation consisted of a circuit of different exercises which consisted of a repeated sprint test (5 and 15m), vertical jump test and an intermittent endurance test. Findings in this study concluded that mean sprint times improved significantly (p This de-training effect is evident for the vertical jump test as no significant improvement between the two trials was found. However if there was a significant de training effect it would have had negative consequences on other testing variables such as sprint performance, this however is not the case as sprint performance significantly improved. Mujika et al (2000) should have took into consideration a possible detraining effect when devising the experimental design as this could have negatively affect the validity of the results. Cox, Mujika, Tumilty and Burke (2002) devised a study which tested Cr supplementation (20g a day) or placebo (20g glucose a day) on 14 elite female soccer players from the Australian institute of sport (AIS) using a soccer simulated protocol. The experimental design consisted of two trials before and after Cr or placebo over a 6 day period. The protocol consisted of fifty five 20m sprints, ten agility runs and a precision ball kicking drill which are separated by recovery walks, jogs and runs. The main findings in this study were that the average 20m sprint time in the Cr group decreased from 3.75 Â ± 0.19 to 3.69 Â ± 0.18s however this decrease in sprint time failed to reach the statistical significance level (p Cox et al (2002) also incorporated a standardised training regime and a controlled diet for the intervention week and also scheduled testing so that it would occur at the same time of day before and after supplementation. In contrast Mujika et al (2000) failed to utilise effective standardised procedures during their experimental design. As previously mentioned Mujika et al (2000) testing procedures took place 3 days after the subjects season had finished therefore training was not standardised due to the fact that subjects had no organised training sessions during the intervention week. Mujika et al (2000) also lacked a familiarisation trial, subjects were only familiarised with the testing procedures prior to arriving for the 1st trial which could substantially affect the results. However although Cox et al (2000) standardised procedures by included a controlled diet for the subjects, it is interesting to note that one of the subjects was a vegetarian, whos Cr content is virtually zero (Greenhaff, 1997). Research has found that vegetarians respond quicker and more effectively to Cr supplementation than those who follow a normal sedentary diet and have natural muscle creatine content (Burke, Chilibeck, Parise, Candow, Mahoney Tamopolsky., 2003; Watt, Garnham Snow, 2004) therefore scrutinising the validity of the results. It may be of future reference to eradicate vegetarians in a experimental design which utilises Cr supplementation due to the diet implications that vegetarians have. Soccer Simulation performance tests To date there has been a number of soccer simulation performance tests which have been utilised to assess and measure different physiological aspects of the game (Bangsbo and Lindquist, 1992; Cox, 2002; Drust, Reilly and Cable, 2000; Nicholas, Nuttall and Williams, 2000). These protocols have been implemented so that they take into consideration different aspects of soccer performance and try to replicate the exercise patterns that are observed during match play, however due to the spontaneity of the soccer it is difficult to assess every physical or metabolic demand (Drust, Reilly and Cable, 2000). Researchers have used different protocols when investigating the metabolic and physical demands of soccer, these can documented into laboratory based protocols (Drust, Reilly and Cable, 2000; Thatcher and Batterham, 2004) and field based protocols (Bangsbo and Lindquist, 1992; Cox, 2002; Nicholas et al 2000). Laboratory based soccer performance protocols Drust, Reilly and Cable (2000) devised a laboratory based protocol on a motorised treadmill what represented the work rates that are observed during soccer match play. For the experimental design 7 male university soccer players (24 Â ± 2 years) were used and the testing consisted of three separate testing blocks which were separated by 6 days. The protocol consisted of the different exercise intensities that are utilised during soccer match play; this consisted of walking, jogging, cruising and sprinting. The speeds at which these exercises were performed on the treadmill were consistent with speeds observed by Van Gool, Van Gervan and Boutmans (1988) during a match analysis. Each testing block consisted of two 22.5 minute cycles which consisted of 23 bouts which were followed by a recovery period of 71 seconds. During each bout the duration of each activity was as follows: walking 35 seconds (s), jogging 50.3s, cruising 51.4s and sprinting 10.5s. However in relevance to this research project it should be noted that the duration covered during the sprint bouts of the protocol of Drust, Reilly and Cable (2000) which is 10.5s does not successfully coincide with match analysis from several soccer studies that have documented the duration of sprint bouts during soccer match play. Research has found that the average sprint time during soccer match play lasts between on average two to four seconds in duration (Bangsbo, Norregard Thorso,1991; Mayhew and Wenger, 1985) therefore concluding in some instances Drust, Reilly and Cables (2000) laboratory based soccer specific protocol can be deemed as in valid as it fails to accurately replicate different soccer performance variables that take place in match play. Another lab based test that was utilised to measure specific variables in soccer performance was devised by Thatcher and Batterham (2004). For this protocol six male professional soccer players were used and the testing consisted of 29 minute exercise bouts on a non motorised treadmill that focused on replicating different speeds, durations, distances and heart rates that occur during soccer match play. Findings from this study suggest that the protocol that was utilised induced a similar physiological load to soccer match play and can be determined as a valid measure of soccer performance. Although lab based soccer specific protocols have been found to replicate some instances of soccer performance it is of consideration of this research project that the limitations and positives of such protocols be noted. The aforementioned lab based failed to perform a re-test procedure to conclude whether their protocols maintained reliability therefore the amount of error in each protocol cannot be determined. Another limitation of lab based testing is that due to tests being performed on treadmills, this limits the subjects to straight-line running only, therefore does not take into consideration lateral movements and agility patterns, which have found to be major characteristics of soccer performance (Bangsbo and Lindquist, 1992). These unorthodox movement patterns need to be taken into consideration when assessing soccer performance as they increase energy expenditure significantly (Nicholas et al., 2000). One positive aspect of lab based protocols are that procedures such as a ir temperature, equipment utilised and humidity can be easily standardised to remain constant throughout performance testing. Field Tests Nicholas et al (2000) devised the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle test (LIST) to simulate the activity patterns during a game of soccer. The LIST consisted of two separate stages which were known as part A and part B. Part A lasted 70 minutes and consisted of five 15 minute exercise pe Effect of CR Supplementation on Athletic Performance Effect of CR Supplementation on Athletic Performance Introduction To succeed in a given sport at any level of competition, athletes must possess specific physiologic, psychologic, and biomechanic traits critical to success in that sport, but they must also receive optimal physical, mental, and biomechanical training to maximise this genetic potential (Williams, Kreider Branch, 1999). However many athletes believe that the combination of genetic traits and optimal training alone are not sufficient to achieve maximum performance, therefore the use of ergogenic aids has become common to improve sports performance beyond the effect of training (Sundgot-Borgen, Berglund Torstveit, 2003). The use of ergogenic aids will allow athletes to gain that competitive advantage over opponents therefore leading to potential success. According to Williams, Kreider Branch, (1999) ergogenic aids are substances or treatments that are theoretically designed to enhance physical power, mental strength or mechanical edge therefore potentially improving athletic performa nce. Given the various demands of team sports such as Soccer, Rugby and Hockey, which require short intermittent bouts of high intensity exercise which are interspersed by low level exercise, it seems feasible the use of ergogenic aids in such sports may enhance and benefit performance to gain that competitive edge over opponents. One ergogenic aid which has become popular among amateur, professional and recreational athletes over recent years is Creatine Monohydrate (Cr). Creatine is a naturally occurring amino acid derivative which is found in skeletal muscle, but is also a normal dietary constituent with a daily requirement of approximately 2 to 3 grams depending on body size (Ostojic, 2001). The majority of creatine in muscles is stored in the form of phosphocreatine (PCr) which serves as an important contributor to energy metabolism during high intensity exercise (Williams, Kreider Branch, 1999). PCr provides the high energy phosphate for adenine diphosphate (ADP) to restore adenine triphosphate (ATP) concentration rapidly via the Cr kinase (CK) reaction (Clarkson, 1996). Hultman, Bergstrom and McLennan-Anderson, (1967) demonstrated that depletion of PCr stores within the muscles can lead to a decline in athletic performance during high intensity exercise, so theoretically increasing PCr stores through Cr supplementation would enhance the ability to maintain high intensity exercise over a prolonged period of time, leading to increases in sporting performance. Ahmun (2005) and Hultman, Soderlund, Timmons, Cederblad, Greenhaff, (1996) demonstrated that the average Cr concentration in human muscle can be increased through Cr supplementation over a 7 day period from 20% pre Cr to 50% post Cr. Since PCr is a substrate for the ATP-PCr energy system which is essential for high intensity exercise of 30 seconds or less it seems logical that the supplementation of Cr would be beneficial to exercise tasks of this duration. Therefore the majority of previous research has focused on bouts of anaerobic performance of To date the effect of Cr supplementation on athletic performance has been widely researched. This includes include positive effects of Cr supplementation over a prolonged period of over 4 weeks which is otherwise known as the maintenance phase (Knehans, Bemben, Bemben and Loftiss, 1998; Larson, Hunter, Trowbridge, Turk, Harbin and Torman, 1998). Also demonstrated have been positive effects of Cr supplementation on exercise performance using a shorter ingestion period known as the loading phase (Stout, Echerson, Noonan, Moore, and Cullen, 1999; Volek, Boetes, Bush, Putukian, Sebastianelli and Kraemer, 1997a). This includes improvements in performance variables such as strength, speed and delaying the onset of fatigue (Okudan and Gokbel, 2004; Volek, Kraemer, Bush, Boetes, Incledon, Clark and Lynch 1997b; Kocak Karli , 2003) Team sports consist of repeated bouts of intermittent high intensity exercise therefore consistently relying on the ATP-PCr energy system which if depleted can have a major factor on performance and the outcome of a game (Ostojic, 2004). One such sport which consists of repeated bouts of high intensity exercise is soccer. Soccer players are required to produce high power outputs and maintain or repeat them with only a few seconds of recovery, (Reilly and Williams, 2003). Such high intensity instances could be the deciding factor of a game, for example sprinting back to make a game saving tackle or sprinting past a defender to the ball to make a shot. One high intensity exercise instance which occurs in a soccer match are bouts of sprinting, which are estimated to consist of 8.1% of a 90 minute match and occur approximately every 90 seconds lasting between two to four seconds in duration (Bangsbo, Norregard Thorso, 1991). Given the fact that there is considerable support for Cr as an ergogenic aid it would be reasonable to suggest that a soccer players sprint performance would benefit from Cr supplementation. However there is minimal research which has looked into the effects of Cr on sprint performance and variables of soccer match play such as agility running, lateral stepping and running backwards( Cox, Mujika, Tumilty and Burke 2002; Ostojic, 2004; Mujika, Padilla, Ibanez, Izquierdo and Gorostiaga, 2000). The aforementioned studies have determined the effects of Cr on elite soccer players, female soccer players and youth soccer players (Ostojic, 2004; Mujika et al., 2000; Smart et al 1998; Cox et al., 2002). However there is no present research that looks into the effects of acute ( Another aspect to consider upon testing the effects of Cr on sprint performance on amateur soccer players is the protocol to be used. Although there have been many protocols which have been designed to measure and simulate soccer performance, plenty of these have failed to adequately simulate the different movement patterns (sprinting, walking, running backwards, lateral stepping) which are involved in a game of soccer (Drust, Reilly and Cable, 2000; Abt, Reaburn, Holmes and Gear, 2003; Thatcher and Batterham, 2004). It seems rational that when assessing components of soccer performance that the protocol that is utilised replicates the different activity patterns and demands of soccer match. If this is not taken into consideration it becomes difficult to determine whether Cr supplementation will have any benefit on soccer performance. Therefore the utilised protocol needs to concisely replicate movement patterns in soccer so that a valid assumption can be made to determine the erogen eity of acute Cr supplementation on sprint performance in amateur soccer players. Thus the purpose of this study is to conduct an investigation that will determine the effect of acute Cr supplementation on sprint performance in Caucasian male amateur soccer players, using a soccer simulation protocol in an accurate, valid and reliable manner with two trials consisting over a 7 day period. Concluding whether or not acute Cr supplementation can be used as an ergogenic aid to improve a footballers sprint performance, therefore recommending to athletes and coaches alike. Literature Review Creatine Monohydrate: Background Creatine monohydrate is one of the most popular sporting supplements in the world today and is used by high school athletes, the elderly, professional and recreational athletes in the hope of improving physical performance (Bemben and Lamont, 2005). It is the most commonly available Cr supplement and the form primarily used in most research studies. Cr monohydrate comes in a number of forms including powder, tablets, gel, liquid, chewing gum and candy (Williams, Kreider and Branch, 1999, p.43). Greenhaff (1997) indicated powdered Cr, ingested with solution to have a quicker absorption rate at raising muscle Cr concentration than using Cr supplementation of a tablet form. Conversely Vuckovich and Michaelis (1999) reported no significant difference in absorption rate between the two different forms. Dosage methods The supplementation dosages of Cr can be broken down into two different phases, otherwise known as the loading phase and maintenance phase. The loading phase that is commonly used in research consists of ingesting daily, 20-30g of Cr in four equal doses of 5-7g dissolved in around 250ml of fluid interspersed throughout the course of the day (preferably morning, noon, afternoon and evening) for a period of 5 to 7 days (Greenhaff, 1997; Kreider, 1997). Hultman et al (1996) utilised a less intense loading method of 3g/day for 28 days and proposed it to be just as effective as the aforementioned loading protocol. However this method places a longer dependency on subjects to comply with the supplementation program, therefore placing more variables into the reliability of results. Following the loading phase, maintenance dosages are considerably lower. Most research investigating the effects of Cr using the maintenance phase, have utilised dosages of 3 to 15g over a 4 to 10 week period (Bemben et al., 2001; Kreider et al., 1998; Stone et al., 1999; Vandenberghe et al., 1997). It is recommended to consume Cr with warm water, as it facilitates the dissolving of the solution and also aid absorption (Harris et al., 1992). It should also be noted that the ingestion of caffeine during Cr supplementation eradicates its potential ergogenic effect (Vandenberghe et al., 1996; Van Leemputte, Vanstapel Hespel, 1997). Vandenberghe et al (1996) demonstrated that a control group that ingested Cr combined with caffeine to have a lessened ergogenic potential compared to a group that ingested Cr without caffein e during repeated bouts of high intensity exercise. Side effects There is no conclusive scientific evidence to suggest that Cr ingestion has any negative side effects utilising the proposed dosage methods ( Larson et al., 1998; Schroder, Terrados Tramullas, 2005). There is further evidence to support this as Kreider et al (1999) found no negative side effects in athletes who had been ingesting Cr for up to 3 years. Poortmans and Francaux (1999) demonstrated similar findings for athletes for taking Cr for up to 5 years. Only undocumented anecdotal reports have reported any adverse negative side effects through Cr supplementation, this includes gastrointestinal distress, muscle cramping and dehydration (Associated press 1997, 1998). Taking dehydration into consideration such anecdotal research can be scrutinised. Oopik, Timpmann and Medijainen, (1995) demonstrated that Cr supplementation increased body mass, while also reporting increases in total body water. Such findings signify that Cr supplementation may prevent dehydration rather than be a cause, due to the fact it can promote water retention. Cr supplementation has been demonstrated to increase body mass by up to 2kg over an acute period of time (Balsom et al., 1995; Becque et al., 1997). This could be recognised as a negative side effect for athletes that compete in weight control sports, as Cr ingestion may impede their ability to make regulated weight in a forthcoming event. This gives a consensus that athletes in such activities need to be made aware that although Cr can promote gains in strength and power, it can increase body mass. Physiology of Soccer Soccer players are frequently required to produce high power outputs and maintain of repeat them with only a few seconds of recovery (Reilly and Thomas, 2003). This includes intermittent bouts of kicking, tackling, turning, sprinting, changing pace and maintaining balance and control of the ball whilst under pressure from an opponent (Wisloff, Helgerud Hoff, 1998). To gain a scientific perspective of the different physiological demands of soccer performance, match and time motion analysis have been utilised (Bangsbo, 1994). This analysis has allowed researchers to determine the overall workload of players during a 90 minute match by calculating total distance covered, and the pattern of activities performed during a game (e.g. sprinting, cruising, walking etc). Movement patterns of Soccer It is estimated that the total distance covered during a 90 minute soccer match varies from 8.7km to 11.5km ( Bangsbo Lindquist, 1992; Ekblom, 1986; Ohashi et al., (1988); Reilly and Thomas, 1976; 1988; Rampini et al., 2007; Wade, 1962). The large variance in distances covered are due in part to the differing styles of play, levels of competition and skill level of the teams that were utilised (Luxbacher, 1997). Reilly (1994) documented the different activity patterns of elite outfield players from the English top division and other major national leagues in Europe and Japan using different methods of match analysis. Results found that a 90 minute match consists of 24% walking, 36% jogging, 20% cruising sub maximally (striding), 11% sprinting, 7% moving backwards and 2% moving in possession of the ball. The categories of sprinting and cruising are defined as high intensity exercise. In terms of distances covered the ratio of low intensity exercise to high intensity exercise during a soccer match is 7 to 1 denoting that the outlay of energy for soccer is predominately aerobic ( Reilly and Thomas, 1976). However the importance for high intensity bouts during soccer match play should not be underestimated. The timing of such a bout could be the defining factor of a game whether in possession of the ball or without the ball. Although work-rate profiles are relatively consistent for players from game to game it is the high intensity exercise which is the most constant feature (Bangsbo, 1994). The number of sprints reported in a soccer game varies greatly from 17 to 62 (Bangsbo et al., 1991; Mohr, Krustrup Bangsbo, 2003). This variance is largely determined by the positional role of the player. Findings by Reilly (1996) demonstrated that midfielders and strikers completed more sprinting bouts than centre backs or full backs therefore relying more on the anaerobic energy system. However if there is not a prolonged recovery period or an individual is not properly conditioned they will not subsequently recovery from high intensity bouts of exercise and fatigue will occur (Reilly, 1996). This is evident as Reilly (1996, p.72) documented that the majority of goals conceded during a soccer match occurred in the final ten minutes of play. A popular theory for this occurrence has been found to be mental fatigue or lapses in concentration from defenders (Reilly, 1996, p.72). However this can theory can be scrutinised as research found that the onset of fatigue in intermittent exercise such as soccer is caused by low muscle glycogen stores (Balsom et al., 1999). Acute Cr supplementation and sprint performance in team sports Athletes in team sports such as soccer, rugby, hockey and American football are required to repeatedly reproduce intermittent bouts of high intensity exercise with minimal recovery. Being able to consistently reproduce such bouts at maximal ability (e.g. sprinting, jumping, running backwards) could be the deciding factor in competition to gain that extra edge of an opponent. During high intensity exercise of an intermittent nature the main contributor of energy is PCr (Williams, Kreider Branch, 1999, p29). Depletion of PCr stores during high intensity exercise has been found to be a factor which has lead to a decline in athletic performance (Hultman, Bergstrom and McLennan-Anderson, 1967). Through the supplementation of Cr, it hypothesised that PCr stores are replenished at a faster rate therefore improving an athletes ability to recover and perform intermittent high intensity bouts of exercise, leading to improved athletic performance (Greenhaff et al, 1993). There have been various studies that have tested this hypothesis by investigating the ergogenic effect of acute Cr supplementation on sprint performance of athletes in team sports (Ahmun et al., 2005; Cornish, Chilibeck Burke, 2006; Izquierdo et al., 2001; Kocak Karli, 2003; Romer et al., 2001; Vandebuerie et al., 1998). However the aforementioned studies have contrasting findings with a quantity of studies finding a significant improvement in sprint performance through Cr supplementation (Izquierdo et al., 2001; Romer et al., 2001; Vandebuerie et al., 1998). On the contrary other studies have found no significant improvements in sprint performance through acute Cr ingestion (Ahmun et al., 2005; Cornish, Chilibeck Burke, 2006; Kocak Karli, 2003). Ahmun et al., (2005) investigated the ergogenic effect of Cr on sprint performance in male rugby players. For this study a Wingate test protocol was utilised prior and post Cr supplementation. Findings of this study were that there was no significant improvement in maximal cycle sprints through Cr ingestion. However in contrast Izquierdo et al., (2001) found that acute Cr supplementation improved sprint times in male hand ball players. For this study subjects were either assigned Cr or placebo over a 5 day period. The protocol that was utilised consisted of repeated sprint runs that were consistent with sprint distances achieved during handball match play. One issue that could have had a determining factor of the non significant results found by Ahmun et al (2005) is the protocol that was utilised. A Wingate test was utilised to test the sprint performance in rugby players, however the relevance of a Wingate test to measure rugby performance is not sports specific there scrutinising the validity of the results. In contrast Izquierdo et al (2001) utilised a protocol which successfully replicated distances found in handball match play therefore maintaining validity. Ahmun et al (2005) also failed to incorporate a dietary analysis into the experimental design of the protocol, therefore whether or not Cr stores within the subjects utilised were full cannot be determined, which gives rationale for results showing no significant improvement. In contrast Izquierdo et al (2001) implemented a dietary examination of subjects that were utilised; this was initiated to determine whether any subjects had ingested Cr or any ergogenic aids prior to baseline testing. This assisted with maintaining validity during research. This can be supported by Romer et al (2001) and Vandebuerie et al (1998) who utilised a protocol containing a dietary analysis and concluded a significant improvement in sprint times within subjects. Cr supplementation and Soccer performance Given the intermittent physical demands of soccer, which requires players to produce high power outputs and maintain or repeat them with only a few seconds of recovery, (Reilly and Williams, 2003) it seems feasible that soccer players would benefit from the supplementation of Cr as an ergogenic aid to improve their overall performance. However research that has investigated the effect on acute Cr supplementation on different variables of soccer performance and predominately sprint performance utilising a soccer simulation protocol is limited (Ostojic, 2004; Mujika et al 2000; Cox et al 2002). The Aforementioned studies have primarily focused on the effects of Cr supplementation on highly trained athletes that are competing at a high standard of competition. However no previous research has looked into the effects of acute Cr supplementation on amateur soccer players. Being as though Cr monohydrate is an immensely popular ergogenic aid not only among professional athletes but also amateur and recreational athletes, the benefit to amateur athletes needs to recognised. Previous research that has looked into the effects of acute Cr supplementation on soccer players using a soccer simulation protocol is discussed below. Ostojic (2004) examined the effects of acute Cr supplementation (3 x 10g doses for 7 days) on 20 young male soccer players (16.6 Â ± 1.9 years). For the testing procedure a double blind method was used and where subjects were either administered either Cr or placebo. Subjects completed two separate trials prior and post to Cr or placebo. The testing procedure consisted of a number of soccer specific skill tests which included a dribble test, sprint-power test, endurance test and a vertical jump test. Results found that there was a significant improvement in a number of the soccer specific tests; this includes superior improvements in sprint times, vertical jump scores and the dribble test. However no significant improvements were made on endurance performance after the two trials. Although a significant improvement was found in vertical jump performance, it is of concern to future researchers to whether the vertical jump test that was utilised during the design is a soccer specific test. During the test subjects were instructed to keep their trunk as straight as possible whilst keeping their hands on their hips to avoid contribution from the arms which doesnt successfully replicate jumping movements in soccer therefore questioning the validity of the vertical jump test as to whether or not it is a measure of soccer specific performance. The age of the subjects in this research can also be scrutinised. Eichner, King, Myhal, Prentice and Ziegenfuss (1999) confirmed that there was insufficient research to determine the acute and chronic side effects of Cr consumption in athletes under the age of 18 therefore places the subjects which were used in the mentioned study under possible risk. Eichner et al (1999) also highlighted that Cr supplementation in young athletes could have a possible degradation of ethics, by where a win at all costs mentality is fostered and an attitude by where ergogenic aids are necessary to win, which is the wrong message to be installing in young athletes. Likewise Mujika, Padilla, Ibanez, Izquerido and Gorostiaga (2000) concluded acute Cr supplementation (20g a day x 6 days) significantly improved sprint performance and found no significant improvement in endurance performance using a soccer simulation protocol. Mujika et al (2000) also documented no increase in vertical jump performance using a similar protocol to Ostojic (2004) which has minimal significance in a soccer simulation study. Mujika et al (2000) tested 19 elite male soccer players who at the time of investigation were highly trained, however only 17 fully completed the testing due to illness or injury. The protocol for this investigation consisted of a circuit of different exercises which consisted of a repeated sprint test (5 and 15m), vertical jump test and an intermittent endurance test. Findings in this study concluded that mean sprint times improved significantly (p This de-training effect is evident for the vertical jump test as no significant improvement between the two trials was found. However if there was a significant de training effect it would have had negative consequences on other testing variables such as sprint performance, this however is not the case as sprint performance significantly improved. Mujika et al (2000) should have took into consideration a possible detraining effect when devising the experimental design as this could have negatively affect the validity of the results. Cox, Mujika, Tumilty and Burke (2002) devised a study which tested Cr supplementation (20g a day) or placebo (20g glucose a day) on 14 elite female soccer players from the Australian institute of sport (AIS) using a soccer simulated protocol. The experimental design consisted of two trials before and after Cr or placebo over a 6 day period. The protocol consisted of fifty five 20m sprints, ten agility runs and a precision ball kicking drill which are separated by recovery walks, jogs and runs. The main findings in this study were that the average 20m sprint time in the Cr group decreased from 3.75 Â ± 0.19 to 3.69 Â ± 0.18s however this decrease in sprint time failed to reach the statistical significance level (p Cox et al (2002) also incorporated a standardised training regime and a controlled diet for the intervention week and also scheduled testing so that it would occur at the same time of day before and after supplementation. In contrast Mujika et al (2000) failed to utilise effective standardised procedures during their experimental design. As previously mentioned Mujika et al (2000) testing procedures took place 3 days after the subjects season had finished therefore training was not standardised due to the fact that subjects had no organised training sessions during the intervention week. Mujika et al (2000) also lacked a familiarisation trial, subjects were only familiarised with the testing procedures prior to arriving for the 1st trial which could substantially affect the results. However although Cox et al (2000) standardised procedures by included a controlled diet for the subjects, it is interesting to note that one of the subjects was a vegetarian, whos Cr content is virtually zero (Greenhaff, 1997). Research has found that vegetarians respond quicker and more effectively to Cr supplementation than those who follow a normal sedentary diet and have natural muscle creatine content (Burke, Chilibeck, Parise, Candow, Mahoney Tamopolsky., 2003; Watt, Garnham Snow, 2004) therefore scrutinising the validity of the results. It may be of future reference to eradicate vegetarians in a experimental design which utilises Cr supplementation due to the diet implications that vegetarians have. Soccer Simulation performance tests To date there has been a number of soccer simulation performance tests which have been utilised to assess and measure different physiological aspects of the game (Bangsbo and Lindquist, 1992; Cox, 2002; Drust, Reilly and Cable, 2000; Nicholas, Nuttall and Williams, 2000). These protocols have been implemented so that they take into consideration different aspects of soccer performance and try to replicate the exercise patterns that are observed during match play, however due to the spontaneity of the soccer it is difficult to assess every physical or metabolic demand (Drust, Reilly and Cable, 2000). Researchers have used different protocols when investigating the metabolic and physical demands of soccer, these can documented into laboratory based protocols (Drust, Reilly and Cable, 2000; Thatcher and Batterham, 2004) and field based protocols (Bangsbo and Lindquist, 1992; Cox, 2002; Nicholas et al 2000). Laboratory based soccer performance protocols Drust, Reilly and Cable (2000) devised a laboratory based protocol on a motorised treadmill what represented the work rates that are observed during soccer match play. For the experimental design 7 male university soccer players (24 Â ± 2 years) were used and the testing consisted of three separate testing blocks which were separated by 6 days. The protocol consisted of the different exercise intensities that are utilised during soccer match play; this consisted of walking, jogging, cruising and sprinting. The speeds at which these exercises were performed on the treadmill were consistent with speeds observed by Van Gool, Van Gervan and Boutmans (1988) during a match analysis. Each testing block consisted of two 22.5 minute cycles which consisted of 23 bouts which were followed by a recovery period of 71 seconds. During each bout the duration of each activity was as follows: walking 35 seconds (s), jogging 50.3s, cruising 51.4s and sprinting 10.5s. However in relevance to this research project it should be noted that the duration covered during the sprint bouts of the protocol of Drust, Reilly and Cable (2000) which is 10.5s does not successfully coincide with match analysis from several soccer studies that have documented the duration of sprint bouts during soccer match play. Research has found that the average sprint time during soccer match play lasts between on average two to four seconds in duration (Bangsbo, Norregard Thorso,1991; Mayhew and Wenger, 1985) therefore concluding in some instances Drust, Reilly and Cables (2000) laboratory based soccer specific protocol can be deemed as in valid as it fails to accurately replicate different soccer performance variables that take place in match play. Another lab based test that was utilised to measure specific variables in soccer performance was devised by Thatcher and Batterham (2004). For this protocol six male professional soccer players were used and the testing consisted of 29 minute exercise bouts on a non motorised treadmill that focused on replicating different speeds, durations, distances and heart rates that occur during soccer match play. Findings from this study suggest that the protocol that was utilised induced a similar physiological load to soccer match play and can be determined as a valid measure of soccer performance. Although lab based soccer specific protocols have been found to replicate some instances of soccer performance it is of consideration of this research project that the limitations and positives of such protocols be noted. The aforementioned lab based failed to perform a re-test procedure to conclude whether their protocols maintained reliability therefore the amount of error in each protocol cannot be determined. Another limitation of lab based testing is that due to tests being performed on treadmills, this limits the subjects to straight-line running only, therefore does not take into consideration lateral movements and agility patterns, which have found to be major characteristics of soccer performance (Bangsbo and Lindquist, 1992). These unorthodox movement patterns need to be taken into consideration when assessing soccer performance as they increase energy expenditure significantly (Nicholas et al., 2000). One positive aspect of lab based protocols are that procedures such as a ir temperature, equipment utilised and humidity can be easily standardised to remain constant throughout performance testing. Field Tests Nicholas et al (2000) devised the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle test (LIST) to simulate the activity patterns during a game of soccer. The LIST consisted of two separate stages which were known as part A and part B. Part A lasted 70 minutes and consisted of five 15 minute exercise pe